WHEN EMANCIPATION came there were two primary struggles over democracy and governance in Jamaica. One was over the democratic control of Local Government and the other was to make Local Government serve new and broader interests. Property restrictions on the right to vote excluded the majority of Jamaicans from the electorate. However, since property qualifications were lower for voting in Local Government elections (then called vestry elections), persons of small property had a better chance to get elected to the vestry councils. This was the level of democracy that the first free Jamaicans concentrated their campaigns on.

Furthermore, since Central Government concentrated on providing services that assisted the large plantations rather than the newly independent peasantry, Government served the interests of the big planters rather than the small farmers, shopkeepers and artisans. Roads, railway lines and water systems, for example, were built to service the large plantations rather than the independent communities.

Whereas the struggle for democratic control of Local Government in Jamaica began with the first vestry elections after Emancipation in the 1840s, the struggle for a system of Government that could serve the wider society came after the Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865. It was at this time that the inefficient and corrupt vestry system was abolished. It is not often appreciated that Paul Bogle and his rebels struck a fatal blow to the old Local Government system that had served the privileged. The vestries only supported the clergy and its churches, provided some poor relief, maintained a few roads and assisted in keeping public order, that is, keeping people from rebelling.

EARLY STRUGGLES

A new law in 1867 reduced the number of Jamaica's parishes to 14 and created in place of the vestries, the Municipal and Road Boards. These authorities, however, were even less democratic than the vestries were. The old political class in Jamaica had feared the rising influence of Jamaica's free voters and the rising numbers of ordinary Jamaicans who were being elected to the local councils. The elective vestry system was abolished. The Municipal and Road Boards were appointed by the Governor.

But the Morant Bay Rebellion had forced the colonial government to accept that conditions of the ordinary people were deplorable. As a result, a more modern system of Local Government was introduced. In 1886, Parochial Boards were created and new functions were given over to them. Responsibility for public health, public markets, fire services, sanitation, public cleansing, abattoirs, public beaches, building regulations and street lighting were added over time.

In 1944, Jamaicans achieved universal adult suffrage and the first fully democratic elections to Local Government were held in 1947. It took 100 years between the first elections to the vestries in which free Jamaicans could participate for full political freedom to provide Jamaicans with the right to elect their own local representatives.

THE MODERN STRUGGLE

The next important phase in the struggle for local democracy and local governance began in 1985. Two political crises threatened Jamaican democracy. First, snap elections were called in 1983 on an outdated voters' list causing the PNP to boycott those general elections. Those uncontested elections produced a voter turnout of only three per cent. The PNP, therefore, regarded the Local Government elections, the first and only contested elections of any kind between 1980 and 1989, as a referendum of sorts on the Government.

Second, in 1985 the JLP Government reduced the number of local authorities and centralised revenue collection, virtually undercutting effective Local Government. There was a national reaction. The 1986 Local Government elections produced a voter turnout of over 60 per cent, equivalent to the general election turnout of the last two elections. The JLP lost badly. Even as recently as 1998, Mr. Seaga refused to lead the JLP in the Local Government elections and did not want the JLP to participate at all.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORM

The 1990s marked a new phase in strengthening Local Government and local democracy. A programme of Local Government reform was launched in 1993.

The most important aspects of this are: expanding the powers of revenue collection and the support base of local authorities; creating new municipalities; providing for new and locally-determined management structures, including the possibility of directly elected mayors; and establishing local and regional development committees to involve partnerships with civil society. These are supported by a decision to enshrine Local Government in a new constitution.

These are the most profound changes prescribed for Jamaica's Local Government in the historic struggle for local democracy and local governance. The reforms are consistent with the modern democratic movement in many countries aimed at devolving power to local authorities, empowering citizens in so doing and concentrating on good governance as the critical element in development. Yet, this movement is facing counteracting trends such as a decline in community identity and community values, a decline of respect for political and social leaders and a decline in general civility.

A 1996 report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) found that the decline of community values was Caribbean-wide. It explained that "The decline of community is seen as a by-product of internal and external migration, greater social mobility, the disappearance of institutions that served as poles around which community action took place, lack of participation of fathers, the decline of attendance at church-related activities, by young men in particular, the appearance of the 'block' or 'street corner lime' as an alternative mechanism for transmitting norms as to what values and forms of dress are cool and what are not."

The current struggle, therefore, is not just for democracy but for community. The basis for community democracy is there. The evidence is that rural residents do have a strong or at least stronger propensity for community participation than do urban ones. As local centres develop into strong commercial and population centres (such as Portmore) demands are made for a stronger role in local administration. Governments themselves come to recognise that devolution makes administrative sense.

As a Canadian study has pointed out, the pace of change might outrun the development of institutions needed to handle change in a peaceful way. The reason a strong Local Government system is necessary is that society is demanding greater participation while the Government machinery is inadequate to absorb and respond to these increased demands. Strong Local Government, therefore, provides stronger capacity to govern.

DEMOCRACY AND PROPERTY

Property restrictions kept Jamaicans out of Government and democracy for 100 years after Emancipation. If someone did not pay taxes of a certain amount he could not vote. But property rights can strengthen democratic opportunity. The same property that restricted democracy can strengthen it. It is agreed that Local Government needs a stronger revenue base if it is to be able to do more.

A Canadian study offered the position that property taxes are a reliable source of revenue for financing Local Government services and facilities. It found that property taxes were low in Jamaica but it is a politically sensitive issue and Govern-ments have been hesitant about raising more revenue from property. This is one area for healthy dialogue.

Parish Development Committees should raise this issue in their consultations, while identifying the services that could be provided from this source of additional revenue.

The reform process is already encouraging. Dionne Jackson Miller reported Andrew Farncombe as saying: "I think there have been significant strides forward. You see town hall style meetings happening... local governments are taking their budgets to the people for the first time, and... the establishment of Parish Development Committees has meant that the average Jamaican has a better voice in local affairs."

Farncombe, an international expert on urban management, has been working with the Jamaican Government on Local Government reform. The current drive by the Kingston and St. Andrew Parish Development Committee is a good example of Local Government's consultative efforts with citizens to develop the country's main city.

The forthcoming Local Government elections should be seen as a referendum on Local Government reforms. The reforms in the making are critical from the standpoint of where Jamaica is coming from and where it must go. Jamaicans should vote for candidates who are committed to the programme of reforms. A strong Local Government system is the foundation for a strong democracy.

Robert Buddan lectures in the Department of Government, Mona, UWI. E-mail:rbuddan@uwimona.edu.jm.